# vecm

Create vector error-correction (VEC) model

## Description

The vecm function returns a vecm object specifying the functional form and storing the parameter values of a (p – 1)-order, cointegrated, multivariate vector error-correction model (VEC((p – 1)) model.

The key components of a vecm object include the number of time series (response-variable dimensionality), the number of cointegrating relations among the response variables (cointegrating rank), and the degree of the multivariate autoregressive polynomial composed of first differences of the response series (short-run polynomial), which is p – 1. That is, p – 1 is the maximum lag with a nonzero coefficient matrix, and p is the order of the vector autoregression (VAR) model representation of the VEC model. Other model components include a regression component to associate the same exogenous predictor variables to each response series, and constant and time trend terms.

Another important component of a VEC model is its Johansen form because it dictates how MATLAB® includes deterministic terms in the model. This specification has implications on the estimation procedure and allowable equality constraints. For more details, see Johansen Form and [2].

Given the response-variable dimensionality, cointegrating rank, and short-run polynomial degree, all coefficient matrices and innovation-distribution parameters are unknown and estimable unless you specify their values by using name-value pair argument syntax. To choose which Johansen form is suitable for your data, then estimate a model containing all or partially unknown parameter values given the data, use estimate. To work with an estimated or fully specified vecm model object, pass it to an object function.

## Creation

### Description

example

Mdl = vecm(numseries,rank,numlags) creates a VEC(numlags) model composed of numseries time series containing rank cointegrating relations. The maximum nonzero lag in the short-run polynomial is numlags. All lags and the error-correction term have numseries-by-numseries coefficient matrices composed of NaN values.

This shorthand syntax allows for easy model template creation in which you specify the model dimensions explicitly. The model template is suited for unrestricted parameter estimation, that is, estimation without any parameter equality constraints. After you create a model, you can alter property values using dot notation.

example

Mdl = vecm(Name,Value) sets properties or additional options using name-value pair arguments. Enclose each name in quotes. For example, 'Lags',[1 4],'ShortRun',ShortRun specifies the two short-run coefficient matrices in ShortRun at lags 1 and 4.

This longhand syntax allows for creating more flexible models. However, vecm must be able to infer the number of series (NumSeries) and cointegrating rank (Rank) from the specified name-value pair arguments. Name-value pair arguments and property values that correspond to the number of time series and cointegrating rank must be consistent with each other.

### Input Arguments

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The shorthand syntax provides an easy way for you to create model templates that are suitable for unrestricted parameter estimation. For example, to create a VEC(2) model composed of three response series containing one cointegrating relation and unknown parameter values, enter:

Mdl = vecm(3,1,2);
To impose equality constraints on parameter values during estimation, set the appropriate property values using dot notation.

Number of time series m, specified as a positive integer. numseries specifies the dimensionality of the multivariate response variable yt and innovation εt.

numseries sets the NumSeries property.

Data Types: double

Number of cointegrating relations, specified as a nonnegative integer. The adjustment and cointegration matrices in the model have rank linearly independent columns, and are numseries-by-rank matrices composed of NaN values.

Data Types: double

Number of first differences of responses to include in the short-run polynomial of the VEC(p – 1) model, specified as a nonnegative integer. That is, numlags = p – 1. Consequently, numlags specifies the number of short-run terms associated with the corresponding VAR(p) model.

All lags have numseries-by-numseries short-run coefficient matrices composed of NaN values.

Data Types: double

Name-Value Pair Arguments

Specify optional comma-separated pairs of Name,Value arguments. Name is the argument name and Value is the corresponding value. Name must appear inside quotes. You can specify several name and value pair arguments in any order as Name1,Value1,...,NameN,ValueN.

The longhand syntax enables you to create models in which some or all coefficients are known. During estimation, estimate imposes equality constraints on any known parameters. Specify enough information for vecm to infer the number of response series and the cointegrating rank.

Example: 'Adjustment',nan(3,2),'Lags',[4 8] specifies a three-dimensional VEC(8) model with two cointegrating relations and nonzero short-run coefficient matrices at lags 4 and 8.

Short-run polynomial lags, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of 'Lags' and a numeric vector containing at most P – 1 elements of unique positive integers.

The matrix ShortRun{j} is the coefficient of lag Lags(j).

Example: 'Lags',[1 4]

Data Types: double

## Properties

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You can set writable property values when you create the model object by using name-value pair argument syntax, or after you create the model object by using dot notation. For example, to create a VEC(1) model in the H1 Johansen form suitable for simulation, and composed of two response series of cointegrating rank one and no overall time trend term, enter:

'Cointegration',[1; -4],'ShortRun',{[0.3 -0.15 ; 0.1 -0.3]},...
'Covariance',eye(2));
Mdl.Trend = 0;

Number of time series m, specified as a positive integer. NumSeries specifies the dimensionality of the multivariate response variable yt and innovation εt.

Data Types: double

Number of cointegrating relations, specified as a nonnegative integer. The adjustment and cointegration matrices in the model have Rank linearly independent columns and are NumSeries-by-Rank matrices.

Data Types: double

Corresponding VAR model order, specified as a nonnegative integer. P – 1 is the maximum lag in the short-run polynomial that has a nonzero coefficient matrix. Lags in the short-run polynomial that have degree less than P – 1 can have coefficient matrices composed entirely of zeros.

P specifies the number of presample observations required to initialize the model.

Data Types: double

Model description, specified as a string scalar or character vector. vecm stores the value as a string scalar. The default value describes the parametric form of the model, for example "2-Dimensional Rank = 1 VEC(1) Model".

Example: 'Description','Model 1'

Data Types: string | char

Response series names, specified as a NumSeries length string vector. The default is ['Y1' 'Y2' ... 'YNumSeries'].

Example: 'SeriesNames',{'CPI' 'Unemployment'}

Data Types: string

Overall model constant (c), specified as a NumSeries-by-1 numeric vector.

The value of Constant, and whether estimate supports equality constraints on it during estimation, depend on the Johansen form of the VEC model.

Example: 'Constant',[1; 2]

Data Types: double

Overall linear time trend (d), specified as a NumSeries-by-1 numeric vector.

The value of Trend, and whether estimate supports equality constraints on it during estimation, depend on the Johansen form of the VEC model.

Example: 'Trend',[0.1; 0.2]

Data Types: double

Cointegration adjustment speeds (A), specified as a NumSeries-by-Rank numeric matrix.

If you specify a matrix of known values, then all columns must be linearly independent (that is, Adjustment must be a matrix of full column rank).

For estimation, you can impose equality constraints on the cointegration adjustment speeds by supplying a matrix composed entirely of numeric values or a mixture of numeric and missing (NaN) values.

If Rank = 0, then Adjustment is an empty NumSeries-by-0 vector.

For more details on specifying Adjustment, see Algorithms.

Data Types: double

Cointegration matrix (B), specified as a NumSeries-by-Rank numeric matrix.

If you specify a matrix of known values, then all columns must be linearly independent (that is, Cointegration must be a matrix of full column rank).

Cointegration cannot contain a mixture of missing (NaN) values and numeric values. Supported equality constraints on the cointegration matrix during estimation depend on the Johansen form of the VEC model.

If Rank = 0, then Cointegration is an empty NumSeries-by-0 vector.

For more details on specifying Cointegration, see Algorithms.

Example: 'Cointegration',NaN(2,1)

Data Types: double

Impact, or long-run level, matrix (Π), specified as a NumSeries-by-NumSeries numeric matrix. The rank of Impact must be Rank.

For estimation of full-rank models (Rank = NumSeries), you can impose equality constraints on the impact matrix by supplying a matrix containing a mixture of numeric and missing values (NaN).

If 1RankNumSeries1, then the default value is Adjustment*Cointegration'.

If Rank = 0, then Impact is a matrix of zeros. Consequently, the model does not have an error-correction term.

For more details on specifying Impact, see Algorithms.

Example: 'Impact',[0.5 0.25 0; 0.3 0.15 0; 0 0 0.9]

Data Types: double

Constant (intercept) in the cointegrating relations (c0), specified as a Rank-by-1 numeric vector. You can set CointegrationConstant only by using dot notation after you create the model.

CointegrationConstant cannot contain a mixture of missing (NaN) values and numeric values. Supported equality constraints on the cointegration constant vector during estimation depend on the Johansen form of the VEC model.

If Rank = 0, then CointegrationConstant is a 0-by-1 vector of zeros.

Example: Mdl.CointegrationConstant = [1; 0]

Data Types: double

Time trend in the cointegrating relations (d0), specified as a Rank-by-1 numeric vector. You can set CointegrationTrend only by using dot notation after you create the model.

CointegrationTrend cannot contain a mixture of missing (NaN) values and numeric values. Supported equality constraints on the cointegration linear trend vector during estimation depend on the Johansen form of the VEC model.

If Rank = 0, then CointegrationTrend is a 0-by-1 vector of zeros.

Example: Mdl.CointegrationTrend = [0; 0.5]

Data Types: double

Short-run coefficient matrices associated with the lagged response differences, specified as a cell vector of NumSeries-by-NumSeries numeric matrices.

Specify coefficient signs corresponding to those coefficients in the VEC model expressed in difference-equation notation. The property P is numel(ShortRun) + 1.

• If you set the 'Lags' name-value pair argument to Lags, the following conditions apply.

• The lengths of ShortRun and Lags must be equal.

• ShortRun{j} is the coefficient matrix of lag Lags(j).

• By default, ShortRun is a numel(Lags)-by-1 cell vector of matrices composed of NaN values.

• Otherwise, the following conditions apply.

• ShortRun{j} is the coefficient matrix of lag j.

• By default, ShortRun is a (P – 1)-by-1 cell vector of matrices composed of NaN values.

MATLAB assumes that the coefficient of the current, differenced response (Δyt) is the identity matrix. Therefore, exclude this coefficient from ShortRun.

Example: 'ShortRun',{[0.5 -0.1; 0.1 0.2]}

Data Types: cell

Regression coefficient matrix associated with the predictor variables, specified as a NumSeries-by-NumPreds numeric matrix. NumPreds is the number of predictor variables, that is, the number of columns in the predictor data.

Beta(j,:) contains the regression coefficients for each predictor in the equation of response yj,t. Beta(:,k) contains the regression coefficient in each response equation for predictor xk. By default, all predictor variables are in the regression component of all response equations. You can exclude certain predictors from certain equations by specifying equality constraints to 0.

Example: In a model that includes 3 responses and 4 predictor variables, to exclude the second predictor from the third equation and leave the others unrestricted, specify [NaN NaN NaN NaN; NaN NaN NaN NaN; NaN 0 NaN NaN].

The default value specifies no regression coefficient in the model. However, if you specify predictor data when you estimate the model using estimate, then MATLAB sets Beta to an appropriately sized matrix of NaN values.

Example: 'Beta',[2 3 -1 2; 0.5 -1 -6 0.1]

Data Types: double

Innovations covariance matrix of the NumSeries innovations at each time t = 1,...,T, specified as a NumSeries-by-NumSeries numeric, positive definite matrix.

Example: 'Covariance',eye(2)

Data Types: double

Note

NaN-valued elements in properties indicate unknown, estimable parameters. Specified elements indicate equality constraints on parameters in model estimation. The innovations covariance matrix Covariance cannot contain a mix of NaN values and real numbers; you must fully specify the covariance or it must be completely unknown (NaN(NumSeries)).

## Object Functions

 estimate Fit vector error-correction (VEC) model to data fevd Generate vector error-correction (VEC) model forecast error variance decomposition (FEVD) filter Filter disturbances through vector error-correction (VEC) model forecast Forecast vector error-correction (VEC) model responses infer Infer vector error-correction (VEC) model innovations irf Generate vector error-correction (VEC) model impulse responses simulate Monte Carlo simulation of vector error-correction (VEC) model summarize Display estimation results of vector error-correction (VEC) model varm Convert vector error-correction (VEC) model to vector autoregression (VAR) model

## Examples

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Suppose that a VEC model with cointegrating rank of 4 and a short-run polynomial of degree 2 is appropriate for modeling the behavior of seven hypothetical macroeconometric time series.

Create a VEC(7,4,2) model using the shorthand syntax.

Mdl = vecm(7,4,2)
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(2) Model with Linear Time Trend"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 3
Constant: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix of NaNs]
Impact: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]
CointegrationConstant: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrices of NaNs} at lags [1 2]
Trend: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]

Mdl is a vecm model object that serves as a template for parameter estimation. MATLAB® considers the NaN values as unknown parameter values to be estimated. For example, the Adjustment property is a 7-by-4 matrix of NaN values. Therefore, the adjustment speeds are active model parameters to be estimated.

By default, MATLAB® includes overall and cointegrating linear time trend terms in the model. You can create a VEC model in H1 Johansen form by removing the time trend terms, that is, by setting the Trend property to 0 using dot notation.

Mdl.Trend = 0
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(2) Model"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 3
Constant: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix of NaNs]
Impact: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]
CointegrationConstant: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrices of NaNs} at lags [1 2]
Trend: [7×1 vector of zeros]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]

MATLAB® expands Trend to the appropriate length, a 7-by-1 vector of zeros.

Consider this VEC(1) model for three hypothetical response series.

$\begin{array}{rcl}\Delta {y}_{t}& =& c+A{B}^{\prime }{y}_{t-1}+{\Phi }_{1}\Delta {y}_{t-1}+{\epsilon }_{t}\\ & & \\ & =& \left[\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -3\\ -30\end{array}\right]+\left[\begin{array}{cc}-0.3& 0.3\\ -0.2& 0.1\\ -1& 0\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}0.1& -0.2& 0.2\\ -0.7& 0.5& 0.2\end{array}\right]{y}_{t-1}+\left[\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0.1& 0.2\\ 0.2& -0.2& 0\\ 0.7& -0.2& 0.3\end{array}\right]\Delta {y}_{t-1}+{\epsilon }_{t}.\end{array}$

The innovations are multivariate Gaussian with a mean of 0 and the covariance matrix

$\Sigma =\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1.3& 0.4& 1.6\\ 0.4& 0.6& 0.7\\ 1.6& 0.7& 5\end{array}\right].$

Create variables for the parameter values.

Adjustment = [-0.3 0.3; -0.2 0.1; -1 0];
Cointegration = [0.1 -0.7; -0.2 0.5; 0.2 0.2];
ShortRun = {[0. 0.1 0.2; 0.2 -0.2 0; 0.7 -0.2 0.3]};
Constant = [-1; -3; -30];
Trend = [0; 0; 0];
Covariance = [1.3 0.4 1.6; 0.4 0.6 0.7; 1.6 0.7 5];

Create a vecm model object representing the VEC(1) model using the appropriate name-value pair arguments.

'Constant',Constant,'ShortRun',ShortRun,'Trend',Trend,...
'Covariance',Covariance)
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "3-Dimensional Rank = 2 VEC(1) Model"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"
NumSeries: 3
Rank: 2
P: 2
Constant: [-1 -3 -30]'
Cointegration: [3×2 matrix]
Impact: [3×3 matrix]
CointegrationConstant: [2×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [2×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {3×3 matrix} at lag [1]
Trend: [3×1 vector of zeros]
Beta: [3×0 matrix]
Covariance: [3×3 matrix]

Mdl is, effectively, a fully specified vecm model object. That is, the cointegration constant and linear trend are unknown. However, they are not needed for simulating observations or forecasting, given that the overall constant and trend parameters are known.

By default, vecm attributes the short-run coefficient to the first lag in the short-run polynomial. Consider another VEC model that attributes the short-run coefficient matrix ShortRun to the fourth lag term, specifies a matrix of zeros for the first lag coefficient, and treats all else as being equal to Mdl. Create this VEC(4) model.

Mdl.ShortRun(4) = ShortRun;
Mdl.ShortRun(1) = {0}
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "3-Dimensional Rank = 2 VEC(4) Model"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"
NumSeries: 3
Rank: 2
P: 5
Constant: [-1 -3 -30]'
Cointegration: [3×2 matrix]
Impact: [3×3 matrix]
CointegrationConstant: [2×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [2×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {3×3 matrix} at lag [4]
Trend: [3×1 vector of zeros]
Beta: [3×0 matrix]
Covariance: [3×3 matrix]

Alternatively, you can create another model object using vecm and the same syntax as for Mdl, but additionally specify 'Lags',4.

Consider a VEC model for the following seven macroeconomic series, and then fit the model to the data.

• Gross domestic product (GDP)

• GDP implicit price deflator

• Paid compensation of employees

• Nonfarm business sector hours of all persons

• Effective federal funds rate

• Personal consumption expenditures

• Gross private domestic investment

Suppose that a cointegrating rank of 4 and one short-run term are appropriate, that is, consider a VEC(1) model.

For more information on the data set and variables, enter Description at the command line.

Determine whether the data needs to be preprocessed by plotting the series on separate plots.

figure;
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.GDP);
title('Gross Domestic Product');
ylabel('Index');
xlabel('Date');
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.GDPDEF);
title('GDP Deflator');
ylabel('Index');
xlabel('Date');
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.COE);
title('Paid Compensation of Employees');
ylabel('Billions of \$');
xlabel('Date');
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.HOANBS);
ylabel('Index');
xlabel('Date');

figure;
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.FEDFUNDS);
title('Federal Funds Rate');
ylabel('Percent');
xlabel('Date');
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.PCEC);
title('Consumption Expenditures');
ylabel('Billions of \$');
xlabel('Date');
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(FRED.Time,FRED.GPDI);
title('Gross Private Domestic Investment');
ylabel('Billions of \$');
xlabel('Date');

Stabilize all series, except the federal funds rate, by applying the log transform. Scale the resulting series by 100 so that all series are on the same scale.

FRED.GDP = 100*log(FRED.GDP);
FRED.GDPDEF = 100*log(FRED.GDPDEF);
FRED.COE = 100*log(FRED.COE);
FRED.HOANBS = 100*log(FRED.HOANBS);
FRED.PCEC = 100*log(FRED.PCEC);
FRED.GPDI = 100*log(FRED.GPDI);

Create a VEC(1) model using the shorthand syntax. Specify the variable names.

Mdl = vecm(7,4,1);
Mdl.SeriesNames = FRED.Properties.VariableNames
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(1) Model with Linear Time Trend"
SeriesNames: "GDP"  "GDPDEF"  "COE"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 2
Constant: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix of NaNs]
Impact: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]
CointegrationConstant: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrix of NaNs} at lag [1]
Trend: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]

Mdl is a vecm model object. All properties containing NaN values correspond to parameters to be estimated given data.

Estimate the model using the entire data set and the default options.

EstMdl = estimate(Mdl,FRED.Variables)
EstMdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(1) Model"
SeriesNames: "GDP"  "GDPDEF"  "COE"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 2
Constant: [14.1329 8.77841 -7.20359 ... and 4 more]'
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix]
Impact: [7×7 matrix]
CointegrationConstant: [-28.6082 109.555 -77.0912 ... and 1 more]'
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of zeros]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrix} at lag [1]
Trend: [7×1 vector of zeros]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix]

EstMdl is an estimated vecm model object. It is fully specified because all parameters have known values. By default, estimate imposes the constraints of the H1 Johansen VEC model form by removing the cointegrating trend and linear trend terms from the model. Parameter exclusion from estimation is equivalent to imposing equality constraints to zero.

Display a short summary from the estimation.

results = summarize(EstMdl)
results = struct with fields:
Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(1) Model"
Model: "H1"
SampleSize: 238
NumEstimatedParameters: 112
LogLikelihood: -1.4939e+03
AIC: 3.2118e+03
BIC: 3.6007e+03
Table: [133x4 table]
Covariance: [7x7 double]
Correlation: [7x7 double]

The Table field of results is a table of parameter estimates and corresponding statistics.

This example follows from Estimate VEC Model.

Create and estimate the VEC(1) model. Treat the last ten periods as the forecast horizon.

FRED.GDP = 100*log(FRED.GDP);
FRED.GDPDEF = 100*log(FRED.GDPDEF);
FRED.COE = 100*log(FRED.COE);
FRED.HOANBS = 100*log(FRED.HOANBS);
FRED.PCEC = 100*log(FRED.PCEC);
FRED.GPDI = 100*log(FRED.GPDI);

Mdl = vecm(7,4,1)
Mdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(1) Model with Linear Time Trend"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 2
Constant: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix of NaNs]
Impact: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]
CointegrationConstant: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of NaNs]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrix of NaNs} at lag [1]
Trend: [7×1 vector of NaNs]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix of NaNs]
Y = FRED{1:(end - 10),:};
EstMdl = estimate(Mdl,Y)
EstMdl =
vecm with properties:

Description: "7-Dimensional Rank = 4 VEC(1) Model"
SeriesNames: "Y1"  "Y2"  "Y3"  ... and 4 more
NumSeries: 7
Rank: 4
P: 2
Constant: [14.5023 8.46791 -7.08266 ... and 4 more]'
Cointegration: [7×4 matrix]
Impact: [7×7 matrix]
CointegrationConstant: [-32.8433 -101.126 -84.2373 ... and 1 more]'
CointegrationTrend: [4×1 vector of zeros]
ShortRun: {7×7 matrix} at lag [1]
Trend: [7×1 vector of zeros]
Beta: [7×0 matrix]
Covariance: [7×7 matrix]

Forecast 10 responses using the estimated model and in-sample data as presample observations.

YF = forecast(EstMdl,10,Y);

On separate plots, plot part of the GDP and GPDI series with their forecasted values.

figure;
plot(FRED.Time(end - 50:end),FRED.GDP(end - 50:end));
hold on
plot(FRED.Time((end - 9):end),YF(:,1))
h = gca;
fill(FRED.Time([end - 9 end end end - 9]),h.YLim([1,1,2,2]),'k',...
'FaceAlpha',0.1,'EdgeColor','none');
legend('True','Forecasted','Location','NW')
title('Quarterly Scaled GDP: 2004 - 2016');
ylabel('Billions of \$ (scaled)');
xlabel('Year');
hold off

figure;
plot(FRED.Time(end - 50:end),FRED.GPDI(end - 50:end));
hold on
plot(FRED.Time((end - 9):end),YF(:,7))
h = gca;
fill(FRED.Time([end - 9 end end end - 9]),h.YLim([1,1,2,2]),'k',...
'FaceAlpha',0.1,'EdgeColor','none');
legend('True','Forecasted','Location','NW')
title('Quarterly Scaled GPDI: 2004 - 2016');
ylabel('Billions of \$ (scaled)');
xlabel('Year');
hold off

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## References

[1] Hamilton, James D. Time Series Analysis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.

[2] Johansen, S. Likelihood-Based Inference in Cointegrated Vector Autoregressive Models. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

[3] Juselius, K. The Cointegrated VAR Model. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

[4] Lütkepohl, H. New Introduction to Multiple Time Series Analysis. Berlin: Springer, 2005.

### Topics

Introduced in R2017b